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Although many studies of male facial attractiveness assume that facial masculinity is related to circulating testosterone levels in adult males, there is little empirical evidence in support of this assumption.
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Read More »In many species, males advertise their condition through sexually dimorphic traits that are testosterone dependent (e.g., plumage patches in birds, colouration in some fish species; see Andersson, 1994, for review). As testosterone has immunosuppressive effects, these dimorphic traits have been proposed to be honest signals of heritable quality to potential mates (Folstad & Karter, 1992). Although this remains a controversial proposal (Getty 2002), offspring viability has been demonstrated to covary with the condition of male sexually dimorphic traits in some species (Jennions & Petrie, 2000, for review). Recently, researchers interested in biologically based explanations of human behaviour have attempted to examine the influence of sexually dimorphic facial characteristics on judgements of male and female attractiveness. Facial attractiveness has considerable influence on mating and other social behaviours in our own species (see Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002, for review). Various techniques have been used to manipulate sexual dimorphism (masculinity/femininity) in facial attractiveness research. For example, Perrett et al. (1998) developed caricaturing techniques to exaggerate the differences between average male and female faces, creating artificially masculinised and feminised images for use in preference tests. Johnston, Hagel, Franklin, Fink, and Grammer (2001) used rater perceptions of masculinity and femininity (rather than male–female shape differences) to drive an algorithm that generated masculine and feminine faces. More recently, Swaddle and Reierson (2002) used facial metric growth data to estimate the effects of pubertal testosterone on male facial growth, and then developed a morphing technique that attempted to manipulate only those facial features that appeared to be testosterone dependent. Whereas all of these techniques generate faces that differ in perceived masculinity, each method has drawbacks (e.g., for criticisms of caricaturing methods, see Meyer & Quong, 1999; for criticisms of facial metrics as a measure of masculinity, see Penton-Voak et al., 2001). The results of these studies are somewhat inconsistent, with some finding an overall preference for masculine faces (e.g., Johnston et al., 2001) and others finding preferences for average (Swaddle & Reierson, 2002) or feminised male faces (Perrett et al., 1998). Studies using real rather than manipulated faces also fail to find consensus in attractiveness judgements of masculine or “dominant” faces. Some studies find preferences for dimorphic characteristics in faces Keating, 1985, Grammer & Thornhill, 1994, whereas others find preferences for less masculine/dominant faces (Berry & McArthur, 1985) or preferences for faces that present a combination of masculine and feminine features (Cunningham, Barbee, & Pike, 1990). The discrepancies between these results are further complicated by recent findings demonstrating that preferences for sexual dimorphism can vary systematically across individuals, time, and with the experimental task. For example, preferences for facial masculinity vary with conception risk across the menstrual cycle Johnston et al., 2001, Penton-Voak et al., 1999 as a function of rater attractiveness Little et al., 2001, Penton-Voak et al., 2003 and differ when a face is being judged in the context of a short- or long-term relationship (Little, Jones, Penton-Voak, Burt, & Perrett, 2002).
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Read More »One coherent theoretical model to account for these findings suggests that shifting preferences represent adaptive trade-offs in mate choice Gangestad & Simpson, 2000, Penton-Voak & Perrett, 2001 Masculinised faces elicit stereotypical attributions of coldness, dominance, and dishonesty (for a review, see Penton-Voak & Perrett, 2001). The association between testosterone and antisocial behaviour (Dabbs, 1993) suggests that even if masculine faces predict heritable health benefits for offspring, they may indicate poor paternal social behaviour. Indeed, a recent related finding is that whereas masculine male faces appear (and may actually be) more healthy, they are not necessarily more attractive than relatively feminine male faces (Rhodes, Chan, Zebrowitz, & Simmons, 2003). Lower testosterone men may have more feminine faces that attract positive personality attributions, but are predicted by theory to be less healthy than high-testosterone men (see Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002, Penton-Voak & Perrett, 2001). The relative attractiveness of cues to “prosociality” and “good genes” may vary according to the situation in which a choice is being made. For example, cues to health and, hence, heritable benefits for offspring may be of primary importance in a short-term or extra-pair partner, whereas cues to future paternal investment and prosociality may be favoured in a potential long-term partner Fink & Penton-Voak, 2002, Penton-Voak & Perrett, 2001. A weakness of all of the techniques used to generate stimuli in the above studies, however, is that relationships between any measure of circulating testosterone, facial structure and social perception have not, to our knowledge, been empirically demonstrated in adult faces (although a relationship between facial expression and testosterone has been reported previously; Dabbs, 1997). This relationship also needs to be demonstrated to support the link between facial appearance, testosterone, and behaviour that underpins the adaptive trade-off model summarised above. We used salivary testosterone assays to examine the relationship between circulating testosterone, facial structure, and the social attributions made to the faces of men with high and low testosterone levels. One method of assessing the facial correlates of circulating testosterone is to use digital composites (averages) of multiple individual faces. Computer graphic composites can be used to extract the defining characteristics of a group, whilst losing the characteristics that make each face look individual (Rowland & Perrett, 1995). If high- and low-testosterone men have faces that differ in systematic ways (e.g., if high-testosterone men have larger jaws, on average, than low-testosterone men), this technique should extract visibly different composite faces. Although the differences between subgroup composites are subtle, they reliably generate differing social perceptions (Penton-Voak et al., 2001). This technique also avoids making numerous measurements on the face, which may miss differences that drive social perceptions. Accumulating evidence suggests that face perception does not operate on feature-by-feature analysis, but that faces are perceived more holistically, with the global configuration of features influencing face perception Hancock et al., 2000, Tanaka & Farah, 1993. Such configurations are difficult to detect with measurement alone.
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Read More »A further advantage of using composite images is that they tend towards symmetry regardless of the fluctuating asymmetries in each individual image. Thus the use of composite faces controls for possible differences in fluctuating asymmetry (although any directional asymmetries will remain) between high- and low-testosterone individuals, allowing simpler comparisons between this study and previous studies of masculinity in face shape (e.g., Johnston et al., 2001, Penton-Voak et al., 1999, Perrett et al., 1998, Swaddle & Reierson, 2002). Study 1 below employs salivary testosterone assays and a composite image method to examine the relationship between circulating testosterone and facial appearance. Salivary assays allow for the noninvasive assessment of circulating testosterone levels because testosterone concentrations in saliva correlate highly with free serum concentrations (Granger, Schwartz, Booth, & Arentz, 1999). For all their potential advantages, composite methods can be criticised on the grounds that the faces are not “real” and so lack ecological validity. Hence, we performed Study 2, in which the masculinity and attractiveness of pairs of unmanipulated, original face images is assessed with respect to the measured salivary testosterone of the face's owner.
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