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Although bananas are rich in carbohydrate, fiber, protein, fat, and vitamins A, C, and B6 they are largely deficient of iron (Fe), iodine, and zinc (Zn).
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Read More »Abstract Bananas and plantains (Musa sp.) are major staple foods in many developing countries of the world. Although bananas are rich in carbohydrate, fiber, protein, fat, and vitamins A, C, and B 6 they are largely deficient of iron (Fe), iodine, and zinc (Zn). A small increase in the micronutrient content of bananas could play a major role in combating disorders that are due to deficiency of mineral micronutrients such as Fe and Zn. The objective of this study was to determine the Fe and Zn content of 47 banana genotypes from a germplasm collection in Uganda using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. The Fe and Zn content showed wide variability and highly significant differences (P < 0.001) within and among the different banana categories selected for this study. The highest average Fe content (1.42 mg/100 g) was found in ‘Saba’ (ABB) while the least Fe content (0.06 mg/100 g) was found in ‘Kikundi’ (AAA). The highest average Zn content (1.21 mg/100 g) among the analyzed accessions was found in ‘Kivuvu’ (ABB) while Zn was not detectable in both ‘Kabucuragye’ (AAA) and ‘Grand Naine’ (AAA). Considering these figures, there is a greater than 20-fold variation in the Fe and Zn levels of the banana genotypes used this study suggesting that genetic improvement of genotypes for enhanced micronutrient levels may be achieved by breeding. Micronutrient malnutrition, particularly deficiencies in Fe and Zn, affects over three billion people in the world (Salim-Ur-Rehman et al., 2010; Wang et al., 2011; Welch and Graham, 2004). Iron is an important component in human diets since it regulates enzyme activity and plays a role in the immune system (Lynch, 2003); it is an important component of human blood (Tuman and Doisy, 1978). Iron deficiency can lead to mental and psychomotor impairment in children and an increase in both morbidity and mortality of mother and child at childbirth (Frossard et al., 2000). Anemia, the disease that is due to the impaired absorption of Fe from the bloodstream affects over 80 million African children and over 60 million adults. Similarly, health problems due to Zn deficiency include anorexia, dwarfism, weak immune system (Solomons, 2003), skin legions, hypogonadism, and diarrhea (McClain et al., 1992). Zinc plays an important role in the immune system; it is necessary for T lymphocyte development (Ronaghy, 1987). Although plant foods contain almost all the mineral nutrients required for the human body (Grusak and DellaPenna, 1999) these are often not present in sufficient amounts (Vasconcelos et al., 2003). Improving the micronutrient composition of plant foods may become a sustainable strategy to combat deficiencies in human populations, replacing or complementing other strategies such as food fortification or nutrient supplementation (Hess, 2013; Zimmermann and Hurrell, 2002). The Fe and Zn content of plants could be increased by biofortification, i.e., defined as a strategy to increase the nutrient content of staple foods through agricultural means, including breeding, genetic engineering, mutagenesis, and agronomic approaches (Hotz, 2013). Bananas and plantains (Musa sp.) are major staple foods in many developing countries of the world where they contribute to over 25% of the carbohydrate requirement and 10% of the daily calorie intake of the people. A large proportion of the bananas produced in countries such as India, Uganda, Brazil, and China are consumed locally in many different forms with each country having its own traditional dish and method of processing (Frison and Sharrock, 1998). Banana consumption rates can be quite high averaging between 200 and 250 kg per capita annually in New Guinea and countries surrounding the Great Lakes region of east Africa (Pillay and Tripathi, 2007). Although bananas are rich in carbohydrate, fiber, protein, fat, and vitamins A, C, and B 6 (Marriott and Lancaster, 1983; Robinson, 1996), they are largely deficient of Fe, iodine, and Zn. It was observed that when cooking, banana was served as the sole weaning food for children in banana growing regions of Uganda; many children were exposed to diseases associated with Fe, Zn, vitamin A, and iodine deficiency (Kikafunda et al., 1996). A small increase in the micronutrient content of bananas could play a highly significant role in combating disorders that are due to deficiency of mineral micronutrients such as Fe and Zn. Conventional breeding of bananas with enhanced micronutrient content represents a sustainable way of increasing the bioavailability of Fe and Zn (Harvestplus, 2004). The starting point for any breeding program aimed at increasing the micronutrient content of a crop is the screening of the germplasm. The extent of variability in the chemical composition of bananas will be useful for plant breeders and nutritionists who may wish to select/breed for a combination of desirable characteristics, including high micronutrient content. The objective of this study was to determine the content of Fe and Zn in a sample of bananas from east and central Africa.
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Read More »Materials and Methods Plant material. The 47 banana accessions for this study (Table 1) were obtained from the banana germplasm collections located at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, now known as Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Research Institute/National Agricultural Research Organization (NAARI/NARO), and from the Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) in Uganda. NAARI is at 0°32”N of the equator and 32°37”E. It is 27 km north of Kampala at an elevation of 1150 m above sea level. It has a relatively dry climate with an annual mean rainfall of 950 mm and temperature ranging from 25 to 30 °C, with a relative humidity of 70% for most of the days (NARO, 2005). KARI/NARO is at 0°25”N of the equator and 32°32”E. It is 5 km north west of Kampala at an elevation of 1190 m above sea level, with a moist subhumid climate and a mean annual rainfall of 1250 mm, with temperatures of 25 to 30 °C (Masanza et al., 2005). Table 1. Category, accessions, genomes, and average iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) content of mature green bananas. View Table The sample represented a range of different banana genotypes and included 9 East African Highland Banana (EAHB) varieties, 11 varieties from Papua New Guinea (PNG), 7 dessert (sweet) varieties, 4 juice producing types, 9 roasting varieties, 6 artificially produced hybrids, and 1 diploid species. Identification of samples. Physiologically raw unripe mature bananas with about full angular fingers were sampled and the bunch was considered mature, when at least one finger was ripe in vivo (Thompson and Burden, 1995). Zinc and Fe levels were determined by following the procedures outlined in Okalebo et al. (2002) using the atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS). Each analysis was repeated three times, over a period of 5 months. All data obtained were subjected to analysis of variance and where significant differences were observed, means were separated using Fisher’s Protected least significant difference test at 5% probability level. Sample preparation and laboratory analysis. Six banana fingers were systematically picked from the harvested bunch per banana variety. Two fingers each were picked from the top cluster, two from middle cluster, and two from the bottom cluster. The fingers were packed in a cooler box and transported immediately to the laboratory for micronutrient analysis. In the laboratory, three fingers were randomly selected from the six fingers per variety for analysis and the rest were kept in a refrigerator. The fingers were washed under running tap water and then peeled with stainless steel knife. The peeled bananas were washed and rinsed with deionized water, wiped with adsorbent paper, and cut into cubes of ≈2.5 cm2. A multipurpose household food processor [Magic Line, Model MFP 000; Nu-World Ind. (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, South Africa] with stainless steel blades was used to grate and blend the cubes into a fine pulp. Each extracted edible pulp per banana variety was divided into two subsamples. For the first subsample, the extracted fresh pulp was immediately sealed in the clean polyethylene bags and conserved at −20 °C for vitamin and anti-nutrient analysis while the other subsample were submitted to moisture determination and conserved for minerals analysis. Before conservation, the extracted pulp was dried in a ventilated oven (40 °C, 5 days) (AOAC International, 2002), minced into powder, and sealed in polyethylene bags for further analysis. The collection and laboratory analysis for each accession was repeated three times. All the analysis was carried out at the Uganda Government Chemist and Analytical Laboratory in Kampala, Uganda. Fe and Zn analysis. Procedures outlined by Okalebo et al. (2002) were used to determine Fe and Znlevels in the banana samples using the AAS. Preparation of standards. Standards for Fe and Zn analysis were prepared as follows: 0.8635 g of NH 4 Fe (SO 4 ) 2 .12H 2 O and 0.4398 g of ZnSO 4 .7H 2 O were placed in separate 100 mL volumetric flasks. One milliliter of concentrated HNO 3 was added to each flask and diluted with water to the 100 mL mark. This produced a 1000 ppm sample for each corresponding metal. From this concentration, the corresponding 1, 2, 3, and 4 ppm were prepared by pipetting 0.1, 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 mL into a 1000-mL volumetric flask and topped with distilled water. The 1 to 4 ppm samples were used to obtain a standard curve in an AAS. Digestion of samples. About 0.3 g of finely ground and dried sample was weighed and placed in a dry and clean digestion tube. The samples were heated in a block digester at 110 °C for 1 h, allowed to cool and three successive portions of 1 mL of hydrogen peroxide were added to the sample. The tube contents were mixed thoroughly after each addition of hydrogen peroxide. The tubes were returned to the block digester and the temperature adjusted to 330 °C. Digestion was considered complete when the digest color turned colorless or light yellow. The tubes were then removed from the digester and cooled to room temperature. The contents were transferred into 50-mL volumetric flask and made up to the mark with deionized water. Mineral determination. View Expanded The Fe and Zn standard series, diluted samples and two blanks were aspirated into the air acetylene flame of AAS calibrated for Fe and Zn measurement at wavelength 248.3 and 213.9 nm, respectively. Absorbance readings for each sample were measured. Calibration curves of absorbance against the concentrations were plotted and were used to determine the concentration of the unknown in the solution. The Zn and Fe concentrations expressed in milligram/kilogram of sample were determined as follows:where a is the concentration of sample in the solution, b is the concentration of sample in the mean values of the blanks, v is the final volume of the digestion process, w is the weight of the sample, and f is the dilution factor.
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